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Een plaatje zegt meer dan duizend woorden. Maar sommige plaatjes zeggen nog meer dan andere…
Over de impact van complexiteit, kunstzinnige afwijkingen en begrip op de waardering van advertenties met visuele metaforen
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Waarom ontwerpen advertentie-designers vaak gekunstelde constructies, artful deviations?
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[one_third][color_box variation=”classic_silver” title=”Peugeot… spierbal”]
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[one_third_last][color_box variation=”classic_silver” title=”Mercedes… kunstwerk”]
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Welke effecten worden met dit soort artful deviations beoogd?
Worden die effecten bereikt? Hoe werkt dat?
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[fancy_titled_box title=”In december 2010 verscheen in The Journal of Pragmatics”]Van Mulken, Margot, le Pair, Rob & Forceville, Charles (2010). The impact of perceived complexity, deviation and comprehension on the appreciation of visual metaphor in advertising across three European countries. Journal of Pragmatics 42, 3418-3430.
online versie (exemplaar beschikbaar)
Hieronder staat een vereenvoudigde versie van het tijdschrift-artikel:
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- tabellen met onderzoeksdata zijn weggelaten
- statistische analyses zijn weggelaten
- bespreking van eerder onderzoek en achterliggende theorieën zijn weggelaten, evenals vrijwel alle literatuurverwijzingen
- taal: hoofdzakelijk Nederlands;
- stijl: vereenvoudigd; en meer gebruik gemaakt van opsommingen; meer illustraties
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[fancy_header]Abstract[/fancy_header]With regard to the spatial distribution of pictorial elements in (monomodal) visual (or pictorial) metaphor three types of metaphor can be distinguished: Similes (where the target and source are visually presented separately), hybrids (where target and source are fused together) and Contextual Metaphors (where either source or target is visually absent). In an experiment using authentic advertisements, it is tested whether consumers’ experience of deviation from expectation and complexity vary with regard to these three types of visual metaphor. Participants in Spain, France and the Netherlands took part in an Internet experiment. Results show that Hybrids are the preferred type of visual metaphor, that deviation from expectation and comprehension have a positive impact on appreciation, and that perceived complexity correlates negatively with appreciation. The effects for nationality are limited.
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[fancy_header]Wat zijn die visuele metaforen in advertenties?[/fancy_header]We onderscheiden drie soorten; het criterium daarbij is de visuele structuur van source domain en target domain, dat is de wijze waarop ‘bron’ en ‘doel’ zich in de afbeelding tot elkaar verhouden.
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- target is het doel: de visuele weergave van het product (hieronder: sportschoen);
- source is de visuele weergave van datgene waarmee het product wordt vergeleken (hieronder de cameleon), de bron voor de associatie die de consument moet krijgen bij het zien en cognitief verwerken van doel + bron
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[color_box variation=”classic_silver” title=”Simile”]
bron en doel zijn gescheiden van elkaar integraal afgebeeld[/color_box]
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bron en doel zijn ‘gefuseeerd’ in elkaar geïntegreerd[/color_box]
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[color_box variation=”classic_silver” title=”Contextual metaphor”]
de vergelijking leunt zwaar op een onzichtbare context: doel is niet afgebeeld, aanwegigheid ervan moet afgeleid worden[/color_box]
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theorieën voorspellen:
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- toenemende complexiteit van Simile, via Hybrid metaphor naar Contextual metaphor;
- toenemende waardering in dezelfde volgorde tenzij Contextual meatphor te moeilijk is
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In onze introductie betogen we dat
It is often thought that pictures are straightforward, iconic representations of reality, sensory analogs to objects in the environment (see Scott, 1994 for an overview). The fact that a light bulb can signal a bright idea already illustrates that this is not necessarily the case. Scott has shown convincingly that pictures, like language, can be used persuasively and hence must be processed cognitively rather than absorbed peripherally or automatically (Scott and Vargas, 2007). Images can constitute complex arguments whose rhetorical potential requires systematic description and analysis. In order to examine the effect of rhetorical communication on persuasion, McQuarrie and Mick (1996) combine semiotic analysis and consumer response theories and propose to consider rhetorical figures as a form of artful deviation from expectations (McQuarrie and Mick, 1996:425). The form of the message may stimulate the receiver to consider why the sender chose to shape his or her message in a deviant, i.e., not straightforward, way. This reconsideration implies a search for additional meaning, and, in resolving this ‘incongruity’, the receiver may experience cognitive pleasure (Berlyne, 1971; McQuarrie and Mick, 1996). Moreover, the artfulness of the rhetorical figure may also be the source of aesthetic pleasure for the receiver (Barthes, 1964). Empirical evidence shows that advertisements that contain rhetorical figures provoke more elaboration, are better remembered, and are better liked than advertisements without rhetorical devices (McQuarrie and Mick, 1999; Tom and Eves, 1999; Toncar and Munch, 2001; Mothersbaugh et al., 2002).
[fancy_header]Wat wilden we te weten komen in dit onderzoek?[/fancy_header]
Hoe afwijkend zijn advertenties met de verschillende typen visuele metaforen?
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- H1a. Advertisements that contain no metaphor will be perceived as less deviant from expectation than advertisements that contain Similes, Hybrids or Contextual Metaphors.
- H1b. Advertisements that contain Similes will be perceived as less deviant than advertisements that contain Hybrids and Contextual Metaphors.
- H1c. Advertisements that contain Hybrids will be perceived as less deviant than Contextual Metaphors.
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Hoe complex zijn de advertenties voor de respondenten?
Wat betreft de door consumenten ervaren complexiteit verwachtten we dat de drie typen metaforen categorieën van toenemede complexiteit vertegenwoordigen.
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- H2a. Advertisements that contain no metaphor will be perceived as less complex than advertisements that contain Similes, Hybrids or Contextual Metaphors.
- H2b. Advertisements that contain Similes will be perceived as less complex than advertisements that contain Hybrids and Contextual Metaphors.
- H2c. Advertisements that contain Hybrids will be perceived as less complex than advertisements that contain Contextual Metaphors.
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Waardering voor complexe afwijkende boodschappen: Relevantietheorie
Relevance Theory (Sperber and Wilson, 1995 [1986]) predicts that if a message requires too much effort, the receiver will opt out. We thus expect to find a negative relation between perceived complexity and appreciation. On the basis of Tanaka (1992), Forceville (1996) and Van Mulken, Van Enschot and Hoeken (2005), however, we predict that the expectation of pleasure induces the receiver to look for extra relevance, and thus to expend more effort. We therefore predict that advertisements that contain visual metaphors will be preferred to advertisements that contain no metaphor. The risk that the consumer fails to come up with a meaningful interpretation is greatest in the case of highly complex metaphors (for instance Contextual Metaphors). Therefore, the appreciation of relatively less complex metaphors is expected to be higher than the appreciation of more complex metaphors, since people are presumed to have fewer difficulties understanding the former than the latter. In short, we expect to replicate the pattern of an inverted U-curve with respect to the mean appreciation of the types of visual metaphor.
Daarom luiden hypothesen 3a-c als volgt:[arrow_list]
- H3a. Advertisements that contain no metaphor will be appreciated less than advertisements that contain Similes, Hybrids or Contextual Metaphors.
- H3b. Advertisements that contain Similes will be appreciated less than advertisements that contain Hybrids.
- H3c. Advertisements that contain Contextual Metaphors will be appreciated less than advertisements that contain Hybrids.
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Maar: Relavantietheorie voorspelt ook:
If the ‘riddle’ would be fully understood, then, by contrast, we would expect the more complex metaphors to be preferred: Relevance Theory allows us to predict that the extra cognitive elaboration that they require simply will be rewarded with the extra cognitive effects in the form of humor or aesthetic pleasure. Provided that the invested effort is considered worthwhile, that is, provided that the message is understood, the appreciation of more complex metaphors will go up accordingly (cf. Tanaka, 1992:5; Phillips and McQuarrie, 2004). Comprehension of a metaphorical relation in the advertisement will result in more appreciation of the advertisement. Moreover, if our predictions on the perceived complexity of Contextual Metaphors are correct (H2c), than we would expect that the downward direction of the inverted U-curve (H3c), where the more complex metaphor is appreciated less than the less complex metaphor, is turned upwards: if participants invest more effort in solving a relative complex riddle and eventually reach comprehension, appreciation will be higher than when relatively simple riddles are successfully solved.
Daarom hypothesen 4a en 4b:
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- H4a. There is a positive correlation between perceived complexity and appreciation for fully understood visual metaphors.
- H4b. Fully understood Contextual Metaphors are preferred to fully understood Similes and Hybrids.
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It remains possible, however, that we cannot replicate the same classes of types of visual metaphor based on the evaluations of layman judges, but that the deviation from expectation, the perceived complexity, and the comprehension of the individual metaphors allow us to verify the underlying assumptions based on Relevance Theory – the positive impacts of deviation from expectation and comprehension and the negative impact of perceived complexity.
Een mogelijk model voor de waardering van visuele metaforen in advertenties staat hieronder.
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- H5a. Deviation from expectation will correlate positively with appreciation of the advertisement with a visual metaphor.
- H5b. Perceived complexity will correlate negatively with appreciation of the advertisement with a visual metaphor.
- H5c. Comprehension of the metaphor will result in more appreciation of the advertisement with a visual metaphor.
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En tenslotte de cross-culturele component in dit onderzoek
Whether the appraisal of visual metaphor is universal or differs across cultures is tested within West-European cultures. Spanish, French and Dutch cultures differ with regard to the manner in which information is processed: the Spanish and French cultures are known to be high-context cultures, where communication relies on the specific situational context to be properly interpreted, whereas Dutch culture can be characterized as a low-context culture, in that communication involves direct expressions and requires clear, explicit verbal articulation (Hall and Hall, 1990). Callow and Schiffman (2002) have shown that consumers from high-context cultures are more apt than those from low-context cultures in deriving implicit meaning from visual images in print ads. Consequently, one might expect to come across similar differences in the preferences for visual metaphors. We thus hypothesize that the French and Spanish experience less difficulties in deciphering the metaphors, and that they appreciate metaphors more than Dutch participants do, since in everyday life French and Spanish customers are familiar with indirect and contextualized speech.
Hypothesen 6a en 6b luiden daarom:
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- H6a. French and Spanish audiences will experience less difficulty with visual metaphor than Dutch audiences.
- H6b. French and Spanish audiences will appreciate visual metaphor more than Dutch audiences.
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[fancy_header]Hoe hebben we dit onderzocht: methode[/fancy_header]
Respondenten
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- Nederlandse respondenten: 75
- Franse respondenten: 68
- Spaanse respondenten: 69
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Stimuli: advertenties voor auto’s met de verschillende typen visuele metaforen
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- Authentieke advertenties afkomstig uit online databases;
- Logo’s, slogans en merknamen verwijderd uit advertentie; merknaam boven de advertentie vermeld;
- 5 auto-advertenties met Simile
- 5 auto-advertenties met Hybrid metaphor
- 5 auto-advertenties met Contextual metaphor
- 5 auto-advertenties zonder visuele metafoor
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Design en meetschalen
Design
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- 4 x 3 design (4 metafoortypen (inclusief ‘geen metafoor) x 3 nationaliteiten)
- Binnen-proefpersoon ontwerp: elke respondent beoordeelde de vijf advertenties van elk van de vier metafoortypen
- Tussen-proefpersoon factor: nationaliteit
- Controle voor volgorde-effecten: voor elk van de drie talen twee versies waartussen de volgorde van de stimuli gevarieerd was.
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Schalen
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- Ervaren complexiteit: sematische differentialen met twee 7-punts schalen: ‘straightforward – unclear’ en ‘easy to understand – difficult to understand’;
- Mate van afwijking (deviation): Sematische differentialen met drie 7-punts schalen: ‘original – banal’, ‘boring – novel’, ‘predictable – surprising’;
- Waardering: één 7-punts Likert-schaal: ‘my overall opinion of this advertisement is positive – negative’
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Begrip en waardering
The second part of the questionnaire started with a short explanation of metaphorical comparison. With the help of a sample advertisement for KLM (Dutch Royal Airlines), which was a Contextual Metaphor, it was explained that in this advertisement an airplane was compared to a swan in order to invoke elegance, quality and luxury.
In order to investigate whether the metaphors were indeed understood as metaphors the first time round, participants were invited to reexamine the 20 advertisements, and to answer whether they had recognized a comparison the first time they evaluated the advertisement.
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- Participants who ticked the comparison option were prompted to verbalize the comparison in a gapfilling question (‘in my view, the car is compared to . . .’).
- If the participant indicated that in his or her opinion, no comparison was visualized, he or she would be prodded with a commentary such as:
‘Some people thought that in this advertisement, the automobile is compared to the strength of a horse.’ Participants were then offered a choice: ‘I don’t see it at all’ or ‘I didn’t see it at first sight, but now I understand how other people interpret it.’
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Procedure
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- Online questionnaires voor Nederlandse, Franse en Spaanse respondenten via e-mail link naar website met één van de twee versies.
- Benodigde tijd: 20 à 25 minuten.
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Data-analyse
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- Tweeweg variantie-analyses (ANCOVA) gevolgd door paarsgewijze vergelijkingen;
- Analyses op respondent-niveau (F1) en op stimulus-niveau (F2)
(indien er significante effecten op respondent-niveau zouden zijn, zouden deze zich eveneens voordoen wanneer andere respondenten zouden deelnemen;
en indien er significante effecten op stimulus-niveau zouden zijn, zouden deze zich eveneens voordoen wanneer andere advertenties zouden zijn aangeboden); - Paarsgewijze vergelijkingen (Bonferroni) geanalyseerd voor hoofdeffecten en interactie-effecten;
- Pearson’s correlatie om Hypothese H4a te testen en lineaire regressie-analyses om Hypothesen H5a–H5c te testen.
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[fancy_header]Resultaten, conclusie[/fancy_header]
Hoe complex en deviant from expectation zijn advertenties met visuele metaforen?
Ervaren complexiteit
Zoals verwacht vindt men ‘geen metafoor’ het eenvoudigst; Similes en Hybrid metaphors zijn ongeveer even moeilijk, en zoals verwacht blijken Contextual metaphors het moeilijkst.
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| Geen m. | Simile | Hybrid | Contextual |
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Verschillen per nationaliteit (zie grafiek hierboven):
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- Nederlanders vinden Similes en Contextual metaphors complexer dan de Spaanse respondenten;
- Nederlanders en Fransen vinden Similes en Hybrids even complex, terwijl Spanjaarden Hybrids complexer vinden dan Similes;
de Spaanse respondenten ervaren de toenemende complexiteit daarmee precies zoals door de theorie werd voorspeld.
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Deviation from expectation
Min of meer hetzelfde patroon als hierboven geïllustreerd voor ervaren complexiteit;
Kleine significante verschillen per nationaliteit:
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- Fransen vinden Hybrid metaphors meer ‘afwijkend van verwachting’ dan Nederlanders en Spanjaarden;
- Spanjaarden vinden Contextual metaphors minder ‘afwijkend van verwachting’ dan Nederlanders en Fransen
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Waardering voor advertenties met visuele metaforen
Elk type (geen metafoor en de drie typen visuele metaforen) verschilde significant van elk ander type:
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- ‘geen metafoor’ werd het minst gewaardeerd,
- Hybrids het meest;
- Similes werden minder gewaardeerd dan Hybrids, maar meer dan Contextual metaphors:
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(klik op plaatje voor vergroting)
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| Geen m. | Simile | Hybrid | Contextual |
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Complexiteit, begrip en waardering
Complexere metaforen zouden minder goed begrepen kunnen worden dan minder complexe metaforen; we hebben de respondenten voor elke advertentie met een visuele metafoor die ze in fase 1 gezien hadden laten aangeven of ze er een metafoor in herkenden. Zo konden we de waardering voor de verschillende visuele metaforen meten in twee ‘sessies’: voor de respondenten die de matafoor herkend hadden en voor hen die de metafoor niet herkend hadden. Daarmee konden we achterhalen of eventueel verschillende waardering afhankelijk was van meer of minder begrip van de visuele metafoor.
Bevindingen
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Hypothesis H4a predicted a positive correlation between the appreciation of fully understood metaphors and perceived complexity. The contrary is, however, true: perceived complexity correlates negatively with appreciation of visual metaphors that were effectively recognized as such (r (265) = .28, p < .001). Hypothesis H4a has to be refuted.
In order to verify whether understood Contextual Metaphors are preferred to understood Similes and Hybrids (H4b), a new two-way analysis of variance was carried out. The analyses revealed main effects of comprehension (F1 (1, 86) = 141.80, p < .001, ƞ2 = .62; F2 (1, 72) = 30.23, p < .001, ƞ2 = .30), and of type of metaphor (F1 = (2, 85) = 33.08, p < .001, ƞ2 = .44; F2 (2,72) = 8.95, p < .001, ƞ2 = .34). Pairwise comparisons (Bonferroni) revealed significant differences between Contextual Metaphors on the one hand and Similes and Hybrids on the other. There were no differences between Similes and Hybrids, the two best liked types of metaphor. In the participant analysis, these main effects were qualified by a small three way interaction of type of metaphor, nationality and comprehension (F1 (4, 170) = 2.71, p = .032, ƞ2 = .06). This can be explained as follows: French participants had a higher appreciation for unrecognized Similes than for unrecognized Hybrids, whereas both the Spanish and Dutch participants preferred Hybrids, whether recognized as a metaphor or not.
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- Hypothese 4a wordt verworpen: er is geen positieve maar juist een negatieve correlatie tussen waardering voor volledig begrepen metaforen en ervaren complexiteit. Met andere woorden, ervaren complexiteit correleert negatief met waardering voor visuele metaforen, ook als die als zodanig herkend waren.
- Herkende metaforen werden altijd hoger gewaardeerd dan niet-herkende metaforen. Maar herkende Contextual metaphors werden niet hoger gewaardeerd dan herkende Similes en herkende Hybrids. Hypothese 4b wordt ook verworpen.
- In hypothesen H5a – H5c wordt geclaimd dat ongeacht het type metafoor er een positieve correlatie is tussen deviation from expectation en waardering (H5a), en tussen begrip en waardering (H5c); en een negatieve correlatie tussen ervaren complexiteit en waardering (H5b). Analyses van de data (lineaire regressie) bevestigen deze set van drie hypothesen.
- Hoe meer respondenten vonden dat een advertentie afweek van verwachting, of hoe meer de metafoor herkend werd, des te hoger was de waardering; maar een hogere moeilijkheidsgraad doet de waardering zakken.
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Comprehension was entered as a predictor, just as nationality (with dummy variables), perceived complexity and deviation from expectation. The dependent variable was appreciation. Our model fitted with an Adjusted R2 of .51 (F (5,544) = 116.28, p < .001). Deviation from expectation had a positive influence on appreciation (β = .51, p < .001) and perceived complexity had a negative influence (β = .36, p < .001).
Comprehension also had a positive influence on appreciation (β = .17, p < .001). The contribution of the regression coefficients of the variables of Nationality was not significant (p > .05). This means that the more participants thought the advertisement was deviant from expectation or contained a metaphor, the more they liked it, but the more they considered the advertisement as being difficult to understand, the less they appreciated it. We have thus found support for Hypotheses H5a – H5c.
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[toggle title=”We vonden nauwelijks culturele verschillen:”]Our predictions on cultural differences cannot be accepted. Although we found small effects for nationality, we noticed that the differences are only relative: with regard to experienced deviation and appreciation, the three nationalities show the same pattern, and with regard to complexity, the Spanish participants experienced a difference between Similes and Hybrids that remained inexperienced by the other two nationalities, but the pattern is in all three countries incremental.
It may be the case that Spaniards are more familiar with Similes than Dutch or French participants, since on several occasions, Spanish respondents have been found to prefer verbal similes to verbal metaphors, and this relative familiarity might explain the relative ease with which they experience similes compared to the other nationalities.
The aspect of familiarity with a type of metaphor deserves to be further investigated. However, we have not found, as predicted in our Hypotheses H6a–H6b, that the Spanish and French participants considered the metaphors easier to understand or liked them better than the Dutch participants. The minor differences could be explained with the help of the tendencies of Mediterranean cultures to express their sympathies and antipathies in a more pronounced way. We have no indication that the dimension of contextualization as described by Hall and Hall (1990) plays a role in the appreciation and perceived complexity of visual metaphor.
It might be the case that the cultural differences between three Western European nationalities are too subtle, and that these cultures resemble each other a lot with respect to the preference of visual metaphor in advertising. In order to verify whether universality really can be assumed with regard to visual metaphor, future research should consider working with more distinct cultures, such as cultures that heavily rely on written discourse as opposed to cultures that rely on oral transmission. St. Clair (2006) has shown that native American children typically think and reason with the help of visual metaphor. Members of such a culture might process and evaluate the visual structure in visual metaphor in a totally different way from members of Western cultures. It is also very well possible that it is the choice of the source domain that makes the cultural difference: cultures and subcultures may differ in what source domains are used to characterize single target domains, such as beer, financial services, shampoos, or computers. This promises to be a fruitful future line of research.[/toggle]
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Conclusies
De typologie van visuele metaforen
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- We concluderen dat de drie typen visuele metaforen, ingedeeld volgens de ruimtelijke verdeling van source domain en target domain in de advertentie, inderdaad verschillende reacties teweegbrengt; en dat de drie onderscheiden typen visuele metaforen gedifferentieerd kunnen worden op basis van de criteria ‘ervaren complexiteit’ en ‘deviation from expectation‘ (ook al blijkt dit op een lichtelijk andere manier dan we verwacht hadden.
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We verwachtten dat de visuele metaforen waarvoor het begrijpen de meeste moeite zou kosten (Contextual metaphors), in de gevallen van daadwerkelijk begrip, het meest gewaardeerd zouden worden. Dat is niet zo. Begrepen Contextual metaphors worden niet meer gewaardeerd dan begrepen Hybrids, en begrepen Similes worden even sterk gewaardeerd als Hybrids.
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- Het begrijpen van relatief moeilijke metaforen leidt niet tot meer waardering voor de advertentie. Wellicht zijn die ’te ver gezocht’. Het cognitieve plezier door het opgelost hebben van een puzzle, weegt dan niet op tegen de ‘beloning’, het begrijpen van wat uiteindelijk niet veel meer is dan een verkooppraatje:
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It might be the case that, even if fully understood, consumers think of complex metaphors as far-fetched, or contrived. Perhaps the cognitive pleasure – the pleasure of having solved a riddle – that is assumed to play a role in the appreciation of tropes, is overestimated in the advertising context. We conclude that audiences, perhaps unlike academic analysts, do not want to waste time and energy going beyond a certain level of interpretive complexity (at least not without some more tangible reward than absorbing a sales message.
Onze bevindingen laten zien dat de ‘omgekeerde U-curve’ die ook in eerder onderzoek gevonden werd (toenemende waardering Similes -> Hybrids en vervolgens afnemend: Contextual metaphors) ook in dit onderzoek gevonden wordt.
Maar anders dan in eerder onderzoek, waar deze U-curve werd toegeschreven aan toenemende complexiteit, concluderen we liever:
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- deviation from expectation en begrip zijn goede voorspellers voor waardering van een advertentie;
- ervaren complexiteit is dat ook maar in omgekeerde richting.
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[fancy_titled_box title=”Practische implicatie”]
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- Consumenten hebben een duidelijke voorkeur voor advertenties met visuele metaforen, boven ‘recht-toe-recht-aan’ advertenties.
- Het toepassen van een visuele metafoor die door zijn sterke artful deviation from expectation hoog gewaaardeerd wordt, de Hybrid metaphor, kan een verstandige strategie zijn.
- Ook al bestaat de kans dat mogelijke associaties bij een iets complexere visuele metafoor ‘alle kanten op kunnen vliegen’, consumenten zullen in het genre advertenties vrijwel altijd op zoek gaan naar een positieve claim die van de advertentie uit gaat. Het toepassen van een slim gekozen en goed ontworpen visuele metafoor kan het persuasieve effect van zo’n advertentie vergroten.
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